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Interpretation is an "education activity which aims to reveal meaning and relationships through the use of original objects; by firsthand experience and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information" (Tilden, 1957). Tilden continues by providing principles encouraging all interpretation to relate to the participant and reveal new and interesting information which provokes a physical or mental response. Tilden, who spoke from the perspective of the theater, saw great natural and cultural resource-based stories to be told.
One of those stories is wildland fire. This story, like almost no other, captivates the audience in that it impacts every sector (natural history, social, cultural, economic, etc.) of the ecosystem in which it burns. Wildland fire flames paint images in visitors' minds and provides vast opportunity for interpretation.
Fire ecology and wildland fire management are complex topics that provide a vast array of interpretable topics. In the wildlands and wildland-urban interface zones, almost every ecosystem function impacts or is impacted by fire. Fire stories are in essence ecosystem stories, especially when interpreting fire-dependent communities. The following sections are offered to assist projects with wildland fire interpretive programs and to help instruct new employees in their program preparation.
Interpretation is a process; it is not content dependent. Interpretation is generally framed as part of people's leisure experience in natural or cultural resource settings. It is here that groups, most often family or friendship groups, engage in learning activities that have multiple outcomes. While the interpreter functions as a covert educator, guide, and sponsoring agency spokesperson, visitors engage in elective learning.
Formal environmental education groups, mostly homogenous groups organized by grade, are lead through curriculum exercises and appointed institution sanctions that learning has occurred. Interpretation is more open-ended, at least from the visitor's standpoint. In interpretation/nonformal environmental education activities, the visitor has no written objectives to accomplish, takes no test, and the rewards are intrinsic or of a social nature.
The interpreter comes with goals and objectives representing both the sponsoring organization's mission and message and the imperatives found in the natural and cultural resources of which they are stewards. The challenge for the interpreter is to gingerly lead this leisure audience towards a stewardship mentality–a mentality that they are informed decision makers responsible for natural and cultural resource matters.
Interpretation is perhaps best thought of as a cog in the lifelong wheel of learning. For example, Jeff and Jennifer's teacher, during their home fire safety unit in Grade 4, introduced the concepts of wildland fires, fire prevention and Smokey, and even prescribed burning. That week they saw one of the national news stories about the Mesa Verde fires and learned that fire permits the rebirth of an ecosystem. Then, that winter they saw the Discovery Channel Pictures' film "Wildfire: Feel the Heat" (1999), about wildland firefighting and wildland fire management. During the next year they saw a number of educational programs on television about wildland fire. The following summer, they visited the northern Rocky Mountains region on vacation and encountered a number of interpretive signs, evening campfire programs, and a visitor center dedicated to wildland fire. While on vacation to Yellowstone they discovered for themselves that the park was alive and well more than a decade after the fires of 1988.
Our audience is being exposed to wildland fire subject matter and is receptive to the topic. The role of the interpreter, as Ham (1992) and others point out, is to "translate" the science behind the story. How do you interpret the chemistry and physics of fire and how do we as a nation manage fire? Probably not by entitling your evening campfire program "Wildland Fire Management Policy for the 21st Century." Instead if we use Tilden's admonitions, we seek titles and stories to which visitors can relate (e.g., "Yellowstone: Ten Years After the Fire" and "Fighting Fire with Fire").
Some basic tenets of interpretation are:
Interpretive resources relating to the process are plentiful. The following annotated list provides a set of useful resources:
Tilden presents the historical definition of interpretation and six guiding principles, each explained and illustrated with examples from national parks.
Ginder, Alison L. and E. Sue McCoy. 1985. The Good Guide: A Sourcebook for Interpreters, Docents and Tour Guides. Ironwood Publishing, Box 8464, Scottsdale, AZ 87252.
Written from an education psychology perspective, the book provides the noneducator and the practicing interpreter with a sound background in the science behind interpretation as well as excellent points on techniques, audience analysis, and interpretive strategies.
Machlis, Gary E. (ed.). 1986. Interpretive Views. National Park and Conservation Association, 1701 18th Street N.W., Washington, DC. 2009. (Out of print but found in most interpretation offices in federal resource management agencies.)
Twenty-four authors, speaking from their point of views, either from a national park, central management office, university, or private sector (concessionaires), express their ideas on the role of interpretation in national parks. The array of views can help you better understand the breadth of perspectives that exist in the role of interpretation.
Ham, Sam H. 1992. Environmental Interpretation: A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, CO: North American Press. (Also available in Spanish.)
A comprehensive textbook addressing the concept of interpretation, principles, and guidelines with an extensive overview of techniques.
Beck, Larry and Ted Cable. 1998. Interpretation for the 21st Century: Fifteen Guiding Principles for Interpreting Nature and Culture. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing.
Building on the interpretive principles of Freeman Tilden and the interpretive guide, Enos Mills, the authors present their vision of interpretation for the future. The fifteen principles range from holistic interpretation to passion for interpretation to promoting optimal experiences.
Knudson, Douglas M., Ted T. Cable, and Larry Beck. 1995. Interpretation of Cultural and Natural Resources. College Station, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.
A comprehensive textbook on the who, what, when, where, how, and why of interpretation. Also included are chapters on management, personnel, evaluation, and the interpretation profession.
Michael Gross (ed.). Various Dates. Interpreter Handbook Series. College of Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI.
Faculty and students at the University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, have created an informative handbook series addressing various aspects of interpretation.
This is by no means an exhaustive list. Numerous federal and state agencies have videotapes, printed and similar materials available for their employees. Likewise, a number of professional associations, such as the National Association for Interpretation and the North American Association for Environmental Education, provide for interpretive conferences and training opportunities.
Guide activities and other personal services are effective in responding to immediate questions when flames and smoke are in the background or visitors are experiencing a burned patchwork landscape.
During the fires in Yellowstone in 1988 the National Park Service made extensive use of roadside interpreters during the fire event. While visitors heard the mass media present how the ecosystem was being destroyed, interpreters (often staffing roadblocks) explained to visitors in a less sensational manner the depth and truth of the message. So great was the misinformation that Yellowstone National Park formed a Fire Interpretation Resource Education (FIRE) outreach team that traveled to local communities in the region to explain the impact of the fire.
Guided tours into fire impacted sites are conducted by nongovernment organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy, and by federal, state, and private resource management organizations. Such personal services are extremely important in educating clientele that fire in wildlands is often viewed only as a destructive force. With such misconceptions, many people focus only on the destruction. It is here that the interpreter, on-site or carrying the message off-site, conveys the message of the natural role of fire in managing ecosystems and the story of ecological rebirth.
Few people in our culture know that local, state, and federal agencies in Florida burn more land under prescription than any other state. Even with this extensive prescribed burning, 1998 still recorded nearly one-half million acres of Florida on fire. Who amongst our audience knows that areas not subjected to prescribed fire in the southeast are upwards of seventy times as likely to suffer from an unwanted fire, compared to areas that have been burned under prescription?
So great is the fear of fire, and so great is the attraction to fire, that substantial resources are warranted to support personal services related to wildland fire management. Likewise, the potential for public relations problems is so great that interpreters, public affairs/information education officers, and senior leadership personnel should be available to personally interpret fire events.
Keep in mind that often the personal on-site interpretation can be a briefing for media which is then transmitted to users of mass media. Thus, it becomes necessary for us as interpreters to brief news sources in such a way that they relate to the messages and are provoked to reveal the depth/substance of the story. Thus, personal contact with media sources is critical. Supplement this contact with a comprehensive media package containing background information (fire ecology, agency policy, fire management plans, etc.), fire history/fire regime of the region, stock photos and file footage if available, and a list of contacts with names, addresses, telephone numbers, and e-mail addresses. Think of all the errors you have seen in news reporting relating to wildland fire and equip your media contacts with the data they need to potentially prevent those mistakes. Most importantly, though, is interpreting fire events in such a manner that reporters will not need to fill in the gaps of information with sensationalism and their conventional wisdom to make a good story. Wildland fire is a good story on its own, without embellishment.
Historically, federal and resource management agencies have provided wildland publications for over 50 years. Starting with Smokey Bear in 1945, a substantial effort has been maintained in wildland fire prevention. Prior to that time, only periodic information was disseminated. Even the early prescribed burns in the 1930s and 1940s in the southeastern United States were publicized. In 1976 the U.S. Forest Service published their Forest Interpreter's Primer on Fire Management. Other agencies' publications of that period also elevated the issue of interpretation of wildland fire.
The major push began in the late 1980s, especially in 1988Ã89 from the public outreach that developed as a result of the fires in the Yellowstone region.
Non-personal media that can be used to interpret wildland fire include:
Since 1998 federal agencies have used all of these outlets to a greater or lesser extent.
Brochures
Brochures range in all shapes and sizes based on agency guidelines, expertise available, and immediacy of the need to convey the message. Perhaps one of the more widely distributed brochures is "Wildland Fire in the Northern Rockies," prepared by the National Park Service (GPO 1984 242-345\00041). This four-color brochure interprets the subject via text and rich graphics.
In July 1998, the National Geographic Society produced a four-color foldout magazine insert, "Natural Hazards of North America." Wildland fires are interpreted with a few of the more recent North American fires mapped, along with other natural disasters. With permission to display, the foldout could be most informative in a temporary display or as part of a bulletin board.
"Fighting Fire with Fire: Involvement of Local Communities," published by the Bureau of Land Management, is an excellent example of a very focused interpretive message delivery, as is "Landscaping in Florida with Fire in Mind" by the University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service. Numerous other brochures exist from federal, state, local, and nongovernment organizations.
With the advent of desktop publishing everyone can now produce a brochure. The interpretive publications listed earlier in this section provide guidance in interpretive message design, and an array of books are available to guide those who wish to layout and design their own publication efforts.
One of the more basic rules in brochure design is to use a grid system to help guide the layout. Also, avoid overkill with mixing font types, use relevant graphics, leave white space, and keep the message focused on a thematic message (less is more). Creating Environmental Publications (Zehr et al., 1990), part of the University of Wisconsin's Interpreter's Handbook Series, is a most useful guide for these and other publications. Lack of attention to details can leave a visitor with a less than desirable experience.
Brochure Inserts
Where brochures exist and there is a need to infuse a wildland fire message, or where the message does not warrant the development of a full brochure, an insert may suffice. Inserts are printed on card stock and are approximately the same width and length as the folded brochure. If standard width and stock can be cut in equal sizes (e.g., 8 1/2" x 11" in card stock cut into three 3 2/3" x 8 1/2" printed pieces) a significant cost savings can be had. In the example given, three brochure inserts can be printed front and back on one set of card stock with two machine cuts required in final production. Because hand stuffing is expensive, volunteers should be arranged.
Fact Sheets
Standardized headings and formats set up on an in-house computer system make generation of fact sheets more timely and responsive to needs than a few years after the fact. The National Park Service, for example, uses their black band heading with letters inset in the band, a logo placement, and a two-column text format. This format permits all agency publications to look similar, i.e., family of publication concept. The same discussion offered for brochures applies here.
All interpreters should work with their publications unit to ensure that graphic standards are met. On the other hand, each agency or organization's publications unit should work with interpreters to provide them with computer based templates with guidelines and graphics packages so that field sites can rapidly generate fact sheets.
Books and Magazines
Since the 1988 fire season of which the greater Yellowstone fires is the most iconic, books and magazines of a variety of shapes and sizes have been spawned. For the most part, the greatest benefit of these outreach tools is the depth of the subject matter that can be presented. Conversely, the costs of production require most to be sale items, rather than an agency borne expense.
Fire: A Force of Nature by Jack De Golia (1993) is one of the more widely distributed wildland fire books. Characterized by vivid color photos and a well-interpreted story, the book is distributed widely by federal agency cooperative associations. Yellowstone National Park cooperative association and concessionaires offer a number of publications for sale such as Yellowstone and the Fires of Change by George Wuether (1988). Books such as Margaret Fuller's Forest Fires (1991), and Norman Maclean's Young Men and Fire (1992) serve the public education need. Among Stephen J. Pyne's wildland fire books that reach readership beyond the resource management professionals are America's Fires (1997) and World Fire: The Culture of Fire on Earth (1998). Coloring books such as the USDA and National Association of State Forester's "Mark Trail Tells How Prescribed Fire Can Be Helpful in Southern Ecosystem" fill a most important communication niche.
Because of the time and expense associated with writing, designing, producing, and distributing these types of publications, a team of expertise is required. If existing publications do not fill your communication needs, exploring options with individuals and organizations, such as a federal agency or cooperating associations, is recommended.
Signage
Extensive use is made of individual wildland fire interpretive signs and wayside signs. Perhaps the Northern Rocky Mountain area, and in particular the federal and state lands in the greater Yellowstone region, have the highest density of wildland fire signage.
The options of graphic design and layout expand with each new generation of computers and programs. Likewise the technology for production, visual clarity, and durability of outdoor interpretive signage are making rapid advances.
Each land management organization has its methods, policies, and means for planning and producing interpretive signage. Most encourage adhering to the following guidelines:
For individuals looking for assistance with signage, the National Association for Interpretation publishes a partial list of companies available to assist with signage. Also, local sign and graphic design firms may be able to assist. Regardless of who actually produces the sign, the ultimate responsibility for crafting the message text and selecting visuals rests with the interpreter.
The fields of graphic design and communications publish numerous books, internet sites, and other self-help materials. Books such as Designing Signs, Trails and Wayside Exhibits (Trapp, et al., 1994), speak directly to the issue of interpretive signage.
Exhibits
Interpretive exhibits relating to wildland fire have begun to blossom in the past decade. Again, the Yellowstone region fires jump-started the wide-scale use of media for communicating wildland fire messages; included in that media are exhibits. Perhaps one of the more extensive exhibits is the visitor center in Yellowstone National Park dedicated to wildland fire. Here the visitor encounters the messages, firefighting paraphernalia, and scenes associated with wildland fire and prescribed fire. Its intent is to help visitors move beyond the first impression left by charred vegetation and incomplete or sensational news stories that often do not interpret the full message.
These and other exhibits tend to adhere to the following guidelines:
Some of the major negative aspects of exhibits have been the costs of permanent ones or the size and complexity of temporary exhibits and the costs to ship them.
Creating exhibits can be expensive, time consuming, and are not a panacea for meeting all interpretive needs. Where in-house exhibit capabilities and experience are lacking, consultation with colleagues who have developed exhibits is warranted.
The National Park Service has a design package for a mobile Discovery exhibit unit. Here the National Park Service has sought to develop a portable exhibit that is relatively inexpensive yet meets exhibit design standards. Furthermore, the subject matter can be changed; in the first exhibit module design, wildland fire was the topic. Contact Harpers Ferry Design through the web site http://www.nps.gov/discover/ for further information.
Interactive Compact Disks
Drop the CD in the computer and the simulation begins. To the younger generation the computer is the medium of choice. As costs of equipment and CD development are reduced, this medium and internet resources will continue to replace a portion of the current print and exhibit media. Even now, touch screen computers are replacing more traditional exhibits. The communications appeal is that now what was once considered a "non-personal" or "cold" medium can become more interactive, adding a warm touch.
CD-ROMs such as "Wildfire" developed by America MPC Research, Inc. (1997) permit the user to explore an array of wildland fire topics. Released in 1999, a Bureau of Land Management project coordinated by Pat Durland (BLM/National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, Idaho) is one of the first complex wildland fire CDs. The Florida State University's Interactive Media Science Project and the U.S. Department of the Interior–BLM developed the resource entitled, "Burning Issues." This CD "lets students take an EcoTour of a southern pine ecosystem, visit the shrub/steppe ecosystem of Idaho, explore a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains and examine the chaparral in America's southwest." To order "Burning Issues" contact Florida State University, C2200 Center, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2641; telephone (850) 644-0707; or visit http://imsp.fsu.edu/.
CDs are novel and relatively inexpensive per user contact. As in other interpretive materials, the medium (technology) cannot overshadow the message. Ultimately it is the responsibility of the interpreter/ecological communicator to develop the thematic story based on clear, concise objectives. Without such guidance we run the risk of substituting novelty for substance. Colleagues who have experience with this medium's development should be contacted prior to initiating your first CD development project.
Movies and Videos
In addition to videos, a number of television and theater releases are now educating the public about wildland fire. Discovery Channel's "Raging Planet" series includes one program on wildland fires. Here the science and spectacular nature of wildland fire and prescribed fire are vividly documented. More impressive, though, is the 1999 release of Discovery Pictures IMAX’ film "Wildfire Feel the Heat," which captures the drama, emotion, danger, and professionalism associated with fighting and managing wildland fire. The case is made that certain ecosystems have always burned and always will burn. Another point made is the role of prescribed fire. Discovery produced the film in consultation with the National Interagency Fire Center and other wildland fire professionals from around the world.
The showing of wildland fire movies or documentaries on television or in the theatre, or the printing of a special wildland fire section in a local newspaper provides an educational opportunity. Agency personnel can build on these events by arranging for:
Some television stations, newspapers, and advertisements for upcoming theater presentations can include announcements of special companion programs presented by your resource management agency. The involvement of private sector programming in communicating natural resource management messages, such as wildland fire, greatly improves the interpreter's chance of message receptivity and understanding by visitors and community members.
Public service announcements (PSAs) and news releases are effective forms of media with which to convey important messages about wildland fire in your community. Knowing how to approach the writing and submitting of a PSA or news release can increase your chances of getting your message heard.
PSAs
What is a PSA? "Usually the PSA is a short announcement of 10, 20, 30, or 60 seconds on radio or television, or advertisement-like placements of various sizes in a newspaper or magazine. Unlike advertising, however, the time or space is not paid for by the sponsor, but rather is donated by the medium in which it appears." (Fazio and Gilbert, 1982).
Public service announcements can be written and prepared for both radio and television release. Radio is a medium not to be overlooked, as it is the primary mode of mass communication in the United States, and it is a good way to reach people in rural areas (Public Affairs Tips for More Effective Communication with the Public: Getting the Message Across with Radio).
There are many reasons to write a PSA for your wildland fire message, including prevention strategies, current fire warnings, and notification of upcoming events in the community regarding wildland fire education. Your communication plan should include the types of messages your agency wishes to convey, and plan accordingly, taking unexpected events into consideration.
But how do you get your PSA accepted for airing by a radio or television station? The following are some helpful tips to aid in this process, many of which can be applied to both television and radio.
News Releases
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's publication, Public Affairs Tips for More Effective Communication, provides useful tips for writing news releases. Among them are Ten Steps to a Professional News Release. The bullet points below are the exact titles of each of these ten steps (pp. 3-4):
Consult the above source for additional details and explanation on each of the ten bullet points.
You can access national and regional news releases from U.S. Fish and Wildlife on the Internet at http://news.fws.gov/; there are archives of news releases as well at this web site. Additionally, you can access the Department of Interior Selected Press Releases on the Internet as well at http://www.doi.gov/news/. These web sites may provide you with examples on press releases about wildland fire.
Do not underestimate the potential that PSAs and news releases can have in spreading your wildland fire message. A little effort toward writing succinct, direct, and engaging messages can result in more informed target audiences.
De Golia, J. 1993. Fire: A Force of Nature. Las Vegas, NV: KC Publications.
Fazio, J.R. and D.L Gilbert. 1982. Public Relations and Communications for Natural Resource Managers. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
Fuller, M. 1991. Forest Fires. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Ham, S.H. 1992. Environmental Interpretation: A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, CO: North American Press.
Maclean, N. 1992. Young Men and Fire. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Mullins, G.W. 1999. Wildfire: Feel the Heat. Bethesda, MD: Discovery Channel Pictures Inc. (IMAX Film).
National Wildfire Coordinating Group. 1992. Strategic Communications for Wildland Fire Management: Discussion Guide.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group. 1992. Strategic Communications for Wildland Fire Management: Facilitator Guide.
Pyne, S.J. 1997. America's Fires. A Forest Society Publication.
Pyne, S.J. 1998. World Fire: The Culture of Fire on Earth. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Tilden, F. 1957. Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Trapp, S. et al. 1994. Designing Signs, Trails and Wayside Exhibits. Stevens Point, WI: University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point Foundation Press Inc.
USDA and National Association of State Foresters. "Mark Trail Tells How Prescribed Fire Can Be Helpful in Southern Ecosystem" (coloring book).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Public Affairs. (no date). Public AffairsTips for More Effective Communication with the Public: Getting the Message Across with Radio. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of the Interior.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servivce, Office of Public Affairs. (no date). Public Affairs Tips for More Effective Communication with the Public: How to Write a News Release. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of the Interior.
Wuether, G. 1988. Yellowstone and the Fires of Change. Salt Lake City, UT: Haggis House Publications, Inc.
Zehr, J., M. Gross and R. Zimmerman. 1990. Creating Environmental Publications. Stevens Point, WI: University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point Foundation Press, Inc.
Authors: Gary W. Mullins and Gina Zwerling